Sunday, November 30, 2008
Saturday, November 29, 2008
TED.com
Check out this website they bill themselves as "Inspired talks by the world's leading thinkers and doers" It's were I found the link to the interview with Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi
Web links
Here are a few web links that I found when surfing the web
This one includes a down loadable PDF dissertation on flow theory.
The next on is where Jenova Chen shares his research and ideas with gamers and game designers from all over the world who are interested in game design theories, processes and their innovations.
The site is currently focused on Jenova's MFA thesis research. It is about inventing new methodologies usable by the frontline game designers to help realizing dynamic Flow experiences for different individuals and more importantly for potential gamers who are still out of the current video game market.
This one includes a down loadable PDF dissertation on flow theory.
The next on is where Jenova Chen shares his research and ideas with gamers and game designers from all over the world who are interested in game design theories, processes and their innovations.
The site is currently focused on Jenova's MFA thesis research. It is about inventing new methodologies usable by the frontline game designers to help realizing dynamic Flow experiences for different individuals and more importantly for potential gamers who are still out of the current video game market.
Friday, November 21, 2008
Brinthaupt & Shin (2001)
Brinthaupt, T. and Shin, C.M. (2001). The relationship of academic cramming to the flow experience. College Student Journal, volume 35, 3 457-472
Problem
Brinthaupt, T. and Shin, C.M. (2001), noted that research has neglected to examine the experiential aspects of academic cramming. Most educators have a negative view of the efficacy of cramming; we lecture students telling them “don’t wait until the last minute.” Prior to Brinthaupt, T. and Shin, C.M. (2001), no one asked, what do the crammers get out of the experience? Brinthaupt, T. and Shin, C.M. (2001), asked whether was there a relationship between cramming and Csikszentmihalyi (1987), flow theory. The researchers hypothesized that for some students, procrastination and cramming can create a state of flow. When the researchers examined the art of cramming, they noticed similarities between cramming behavior and the flow state. To achieve a state of flow, the individual must engage in a challenging activity that requires skills, merge actions with awareness, have clear goals and receive feedback. During the flow experience, the individual experiences increased concentration, the loss of self-consciousness, and a transformation of time.
Brinthaupt, T. and Shin, C.M. (2001), note that when students self-selected texts to read for pleasure they were more likely to experience flow. However, assigned texts read for a specific class did not produce the same results. Brinthaupt, T. and Shin, C.M. (2001), suggest that the assigned texts are less engaging and possibly, even boring, thus contributing to the procrastination, which in turns leads to cramming. Csikszentmihalyi (1990, 1997) suggests that when students procrastinate, they are, intentionally or unintentionally, increasing the level of challenge. Therefore, a student who successfully crams for a test or writes a paper at the last moment may do so because the likelihood of experiencing a flow state is increased.
To explore the possible connection between cramming and flow, the authors created a study that simulated a cramming and testing situation. They predicted that the self-identified crammers would experience a flow-like state than the non-crammers. Additionally, they explored the relationship of typical study habits and academic procrastination to performance during the simulated cramming session.
Methods:
The sample consisted of 167 undergraduates students (75 male & 92 female) enrolled in Introductory Psychology at a large southeastern University. Students were given course credit for their participation in the study. The students participated in groups of 10 to 20, and data was collected approximately 2 weeks prior to the end of the term. Six of the participants were excluded due to missing data, making the final total 161 participants.
Study habits were assessed using a 5-point Likert scale questionnaire, which included questions on frequency of cramming for exams: how often the individuals crammed by choice; and how often the individuals gave themselves enough time to study. Participants also completed a 23-item Academic Procrastination State Inventory which was developed by Schouwenbury (1995). Participants read a short paragraph defining flow and then completed a questionnaire rating their experiences of flow across a wide variety of circumstances.
The students then participated in a simulated cramming session, in which they were given a chapter from a psychology text and directed to cram for a multiple choice test. The cramming session was timed by the researchers, and the multiple choice exam was administered immediately after the cramming session was completed. At the conclusion of the multiple choice test, the students were asked to complete a 5-point Likert scale rating their familiarity with the material presented. Then, they completed the Flow State Scale developed by Jackson and Marsh (1996). The Flow State Scale includes items related both to the flow state and as the autotelic experience.
Results:
Students, on average, reported cramming more from necessity than from choice and cramming more often than they would prefer. Student scores on the Academic Procrastination state Inventory and the Flow State Scale were normally distributed. The scores on multiple choice tests, given at the conclusion of the simulated cramming session, were also normally distributed. The participants’ mean frequency of the flow experience was above the mid-point of the scale, indicating that it was a familiar experience for many of the participants.
The correlations among study habits showed several relationships. Frequency of cramming during the current semester was positively correlated with a preference for cramming and negatively correlated with allocating enough time to study. On average, students who reported a greater frequency of flow also reported a greater overall satisfaction with their study habits.
Students’ ratings of the simulated cramming session indicated, on average, that the simulation was moderately successful at approximating the cramming experience. However, students rated the similarity between the simulation and their own personal experiences of cramming below the midpoint of the flow scale. Correlations between students who rated themselves as crammers by choice versus crammers by necessity were not statistically significant.
Discussion:
Brinthaupt, T. and Shin, C.M. (2001), tested the hypothesis that one of the positive affects of academic cramming is that it increases the likelihood of flow or flow-like experiences. The researchers claim that, at the time, of this research this was the only study that had ever examined flow in this context. They found that self-described crammers by choice performed better on the task and reported a greater experience of flow than either non-crammers or crammers by necessity.
Brinthaupt, T. and Shin, C.M. (2001), state that while procrastination is negatively related to the creation of flow or flow-like experience, cramming by choice is positively related to flow. The authors suggest that some crammers might wait until the level of challenge matches their perceived level of skill, thus increasing the possibility of creating a flow-like experience and making the task more interesting and engaging. Brinthaupt, T. and Shin, C.M. (2001) state the differences between the students who cram by choice and those who cram by necessity is worthy of further investigation. They suggest that students who cram by choice may have a unique skill set that allows them to be more successful crammers than those who are forced to cram due to circumstances.
Critique:
The authors identified several limitations of their study. The simulated cramming sessions were only moderately similar to real-life for several reasons. First, the participants had no incentives to do well on the multiple choice exam. Next, the reading material and test material had little or no relevance to the participants. Also, the simulation was shorter, on average, than a real-life cramming session. Finally, flow was assessed in both the cramming and testing phases of the simulation.
Despite the limitations, I found that this study presented several interesting ideas. The idea that some students might choose procrastination as a means of making routine, required course work more challenging is intriguing. The authors proposed that students who procrastinated and crammed by choice might also have positive correlations between these behaviors and other sensation-seeking behaviors. It would be interesting to explore the connection between those who chose to cram and other risk taking behaviors. As I read this article, I thought about our in-class discussion about safe Sally and wondered about the personality types that, most often, accompany the cramming by choice behavior.
Problem
Brinthaupt, T. and Shin, C.M. (2001), noted that research has neglected to examine the experiential aspects of academic cramming. Most educators have a negative view of the efficacy of cramming; we lecture students telling them “don’t wait until the last minute.” Prior to Brinthaupt, T. and Shin, C.M. (2001), no one asked, what do the crammers get out of the experience? Brinthaupt, T. and Shin, C.M. (2001), asked whether was there a relationship between cramming and Csikszentmihalyi (1987), flow theory. The researchers hypothesized that for some students, procrastination and cramming can create a state of flow. When the researchers examined the art of cramming, they noticed similarities between cramming behavior and the flow state. To achieve a state of flow, the individual must engage in a challenging activity that requires skills, merge actions with awareness, have clear goals and receive feedback. During the flow experience, the individual experiences increased concentration, the loss of self-consciousness, and a transformation of time.
Brinthaupt, T. and Shin, C.M. (2001), note that when students self-selected texts to read for pleasure they were more likely to experience flow. However, assigned texts read for a specific class did not produce the same results. Brinthaupt, T. and Shin, C.M. (2001), suggest that the assigned texts are less engaging and possibly, even boring, thus contributing to the procrastination, which in turns leads to cramming. Csikszentmihalyi (1990, 1997) suggests that when students procrastinate, they are, intentionally or unintentionally, increasing the level of challenge. Therefore, a student who successfully crams for a test or writes a paper at the last moment may do so because the likelihood of experiencing a flow state is increased.
To explore the possible connection between cramming and flow, the authors created a study that simulated a cramming and testing situation. They predicted that the self-identified crammers would experience a flow-like state than the non-crammers. Additionally, they explored the relationship of typical study habits and academic procrastination to performance during the simulated cramming session.
Methods:
The sample consisted of 167 undergraduates students (75 male & 92 female) enrolled in Introductory Psychology at a large southeastern University. Students were given course credit for their participation in the study. The students participated in groups of 10 to 20, and data was collected approximately 2 weeks prior to the end of the term. Six of the participants were excluded due to missing data, making the final total 161 participants.
Study habits were assessed using a 5-point Likert scale questionnaire, which included questions on frequency of cramming for exams: how often the individuals crammed by choice; and how often the individuals gave themselves enough time to study. Participants also completed a 23-item Academic Procrastination State Inventory which was developed by Schouwenbury (1995). Participants read a short paragraph defining flow and then completed a questionnaire rating their experiences of flow across a wide variety of circumstances.
The students then participated in a simulated cramming session, in which they were given a chapter from a psychology text and directed to cram for a multiple choice test. The cramming session was timed by the researchers, and the multiple choice exam was administered immediately after the cramming session was completed. At the conclusion of the multiple choice test, the students were asked to complete a 5-point Likert scale rating their familiarity with the material presented. Then, they completed the Flow State Scale developed by Jackson and Marsh (1996). The Flow State Scale includes items related both to the flow state and as the autotelic experience.
Results:
Students, on average, reported cramming more from necessity than from choice and cramming more often than they would prefer. Student scores on the Academic Procrastination state Inventory and the Flow State Scale were normally distributed. The scores on multiple choice tests, given at the conclusion of the simulated cramming session, were also normally distributed. The participants’ mean frequency of the flow experience was above the mid-point of the scale, indicating that it was a familiar experience for many of the participants.
The correlations among study habits showed several relationships. Frequency of cramming during the current semester was positively correlated with a preference for cramming and negatively correlated with allocating enough time to study. On average, students who reported a greater frequency of flow also reported a greater overall satisfaction with their study habits.
Students’ ratings of the simulated cramming session indicated, on average, that the simulation was moderately successful at approximating the cramming experience. However, students rated the similarity between the simulation and their own personal experiences of cramming below the midpoint of the flow scale. Correlations between students who rated themselves as crammers by choice versus crammers by necessity were not statistically significant.
Discussion:
Brinthaupt, T. and Shin, C.M. (2001), tested the hypothesis that one of the positive affects of academic cramming is that it increases the likelihood of flow or flow-like experiences. The researchers claim that, at the time, of this research this was the only study that had ever examined flow in this context. They found that self-described crammers by choice performed better on the task and reported a greater experience of flow than either non-crammers or crammers by necessity.
Brinthaupt, T. and Shin, C.M. (2001), state that while procrastination is negatively related to the creation of flow or flow-like experience, cramming by choice is positively related to flow. The authors suggest that some crammers might wait until the level of challenge matches their perceived level of skill, thus increasing the possibility of creating a flow-like experience and making the task more interesting and engaging. Brinthaupt, T. and Shin, C.M. (2001) state the differences between the students who cram by choice and those who cram by necessity is worthy of further investigation. They suggest that students who cram by choice may have a unique skill set that allows them to be more successful crammers than those who are forced to cram due to circumstances.
Critique:
The authors identified several limitations of their study. The simulated cramming sessions were only moderately similar to real-life for several reasons. First, the participants had no incentives to do well on the multiple choice exam. Next, the reading material and test material had little or no relevance to the participants. Also, the simulation was shorter, on average, than a real-life cramming session. Finally, flow was assessed in both the cramming and testing phases of the simulation.
Despite the limitations, I found that this study presented several interesting ideas. The idea that some students might choose procrastination as a means of making routine, required course work more challenging is intriguing. The authors proposed that students who procrastinated and crammed by choice might also have positive correlations between these behaviors and other sensation-seeking behaviors. It would be interesting to explore the connection between those who chose to cram and other risk taking behaviors. As I read this article, I thought about our in-class discussion about safe Sally and wondered about the personality types that, most often, accompany the cramming by choice behavior.
Wednesday, November 19, 2008
Asakawa (2004)
Problem
Asakawa (2004) noted that the study of flow theory had primarily focused on populations in the United States and Italy. Some researchers believe that flow theory has the potential to foster psychological resilience and to improve the quality of life; therefore, more research is needed to establish the universality of Csikszentmihalyi’s theory to non-western cultures. In an effort to replicate and expand prior findings Asakawa conducted a 3-year two-part analysis of the flow experience and an exploratory examination of the autotelic personality in Japanese college students. Additionally he explored the relationship between Jujitsu-kan, the Japanese a sense of fulfillment and flow.
Methods
Asakawa (2004) collected data from a private Japanese university over the course of 3 academic years. The sample consisted of 102 Japanese student volunteers (48 males and 54 females). The students were enrolled in a beginning psychology course and received extra course credit for their participation in the study. The study used the “Experience Sampling Method”, developed by Csikszentmihalyi (1987). The students were given preprogrammed wrist watches which would signal them 8 times a day at random intervals, for a total of 56 signals in a week. The students would then stop what they were doing to complete the “Experience Sampling Form (ESF)”. The ESF included questions related to daily locations, activities, companions, and psychological states.
Students completed a total of 4197 ESFs. To maintain consistency and reliability ESFs that contained incomplete responses and/or were completed more than 15 minutes after the signal were discarded. Additionally only participants who completed at least 15 ESF were included in the data base.
Seven experiential items on the ESF: concentration, enjoyment, happiness, activation, satisfaction, perceived control of the situation, and perceived importance for the future were used to measure quality of experience. Concentration, enjoyment, satisfaction, perceived control of the situation, and perceived importance for the future was measured using a 10-point rating scale ranging from “not at all” to “very much.” Jujitsu-kan, the Japanese sense of fulfillment, was evaluated by asking the students, to rate the level of Jujitsu-kan they were you experiencing on 9-point rating scale ranging from “low” to “high”. Jujitsu-kan was measured only in the third year of the study. The types of activities in which a participant was engaged were measured by using an open-ended question: “What where you doing when you were signaled.” Perceived challenges, perceived skills, anxiety, relaxation, and apathy were measured on 9-point rating scale ranging from “low” to “high.”
Results
The study examined the applicability of flow theory to a Japanese sample. In concordance with flow theory, as flow increased, so did the students concentration, enjoyment, happiness, activation, satisfaction, perceived control of the situation, and perceived importance of future value. Additionally, as flow increased the students reported an increase in feelings of Jujitsu-kan. Flow theory assumes a positive correlation between the time spent in flow and the quality of experience. The Japanese students, who reported more time in the flow, also reported higher levels of concentration, more enjoyment, were more active, experienced higher levels of satisfaction, felt more in control, and felt a stronger sense of Jujitsu-kan than the students who spent less time flow.
To expand the examination of flow theory, Asakawa conducted an exploratory investigation on the autotelic personality. The first analysis examined the type of activities students engaged in during the week. The results indicated no significant difference between the two groups, except for two marginal differences found for schoolwork (t (50) =1.79, p = 0.080) and overall active leisure (t (50) = 1.77, p = 0.082). On average the autotelic students spent more time doing schoolwork and active leisure than their non-autotelic counterparts. Asakawa concluded that except for two slight differences being autotelic or non-autotelic did not significantly influence how Japanese college students spent their time. The next analysis examined the overall quality of experience between the autotelic and non-autotelic groups of students. On average the autotelic students rated their concentration, enjoyment, satisfaction, sense of control, higher than the non-autotelic students. These differences between the two groups were in agreement with flow theory and not unexpected.
Discussion
Asakawa states that these findings provide evidence of flow theory’s applicability to the Japanese population and suggest the universality of flow experience. Additionally the research suggests that flow has a positive effect on the psychological well-being of individuals who experience high levels of flow in their daily lives. Contrary to the previous studies conducted in western societies Asakawa’s research did not obtain clear differences between the autotelic and non-autotelic groups of Japanese college students’ usage of time. Both groups seemed to have similar college student life. Being autotelic or non-autotelic did not significantly influence how the Japanese students spent their time. However, when the two groups were asked to rate the quality of experience autotelic Japanese students reported significantly more positive experiences than the non-autotelic students.
Critique
Multiple tables and statistics embedded in the text, made this article very challenging to read. The study used a convenience sample of volunteers, all of whom received extra credit for their participation in the research. While the sample size was large, it did consist of 3 separate groups of student volunteers over the three year course of the study. The researcher did not address the possible issue of differences between the groups during the three year time frame. Additionally, the question in relationship to Jujitsu-kan, the Japanese a sense of fulfillment was added to the study during the third and final year. This research was exploratory and supports earlier work completed by Csikszentmihalyi and others; however, I am not sure that it would be generalizability to all non-western populations. I personally did not find this research as useful as I was hoping. Asakawa did replicate prior work and there was the finding of similarities in activity choices and between the autotelic and non-autotelic students. Leading me to question the role cultural, parental, and societal expectations play in the behavior patterns of this student population. I feel that flow theory does have the potential to contribute the psychological well-being of individuals and therefore is a topic worthy of further investigation.
Asakawa (2004) noted that the study of flow theory had primarily focused on populations in the United States and Italy. Some researchers believe that flow theory has the potential to foster psychological resilience and to improve the quality of life; therefore, more research is needed to establish the universality of Csikszentmihalyi’s theory to non-western cultures. In an effort to replicate and expand prior findings Asakawa conducted a 3-year two-part analysis of the flow experience and an exploratory examination of the autotelic personality in Japanese college students. Additionally he explored the relationship between Jujitsu-kan, the Japanese a sense of fulfillment and flow.
Methods
Asakawa (2004) collected data from a private Japanese university over the course of 3 academic years. The sample consisted of 102 Japanese student volunteers (48 males and 54 females). The students were enrolled in a beginning psychology course and received extra course credit for their participation in the study. The study used the “Experience Sampling Method”, developed by Csikszentmihalyi (1987). The students were given preprogrammed wrist watches which would signal them 8 times a day at random intervals, for a total of 56 signals in a week. The students would then stop what they were doing to complete the “Experience Sampling Form (ESF)”. The ESF included questions related to daily locations, activities, companions, and psychological states.
Students completed a total of 4197 ESFs. To maintain consistency and reliability ESFs that contained incomplete responses and/or were completed more than 15 minutes after the signal were discarded. Additionally only participants who completed at least 15 ESF were included in the data base.
Seven experiential items on the ESF: concentration, enjoyment, happiness, activation, satisfaction, perceived control of the situation, and perceived importance for the future were used to measure quality of experience. Concentration, enjoyment, satisfaction, perceived control of the situation, and perceived importance for the future was measured using a 10-point rating scale ranging from “not at all” to “very much.” Jujitsu-kan, the Japanese sense of fulfillment, was evaluated by asking the students, to rate the level of Jujitsu-kan they were you experiencing on 9-point rating scale ranging from “low” to “high”. Jujitsu-kan was measured only in the third year of the study. The types of activities in which a participant was engaged were measured by using an open-ended question: “What where you doing when you were signaled.” Perceived challenges, perceived skills, anxiety, relaxation, and apathy were measured on 9-point rating scale ranging from “low” to “high.”
Results
The study examined the applicability of flow theory to a Japanese sample. In concordance with flow theory, as flow increased, so did the students concentration, enjoyment, happiness, activation, satisfaction, perceived control of the situation, and perceived importance of future value. Additionally, as flow increased the students reported an increase in feelings of Jujitsu-kan. Flow theory assumes a positive correlation between the time spent in flow and the quality of experience. The Japanese students, who reported more time in the flow, also reported higher levels of concentration, more enjoyment, were more active, experienced higher levels of satisfaction, felt more in control, and felt a stronger sense of Jujitsu-kan than the students who spent less time flow.
To expand the examination of flow theory, Asakawa conducted an exploratory investigation on the autotelic personality. The first analysis examined the type of activities students engaged in during the week. The results indicated no significant difference between the two groups, except for two marginal differences found for schoolwork (t (50) =1.79, p = 0.080) and overall active leisure (t (50) = 1.77, p = 0.082). On average the autotelic students spent more time doing schoolwork and active leisure than their non-autotelic counterparts. Asakawa concluded that except for two slight differences being autotelic or non-autotelic did not significantly influence how Japanese college students spent their time. The next analysis examined the overall quality of experience between the autotelic and non-autotelic groups of students. On average the autotelic students rated their concentration, enjoyment, satisfaction, sense of control, higher than the non-autotelic students. These differences between the two groups were in agreement with flow theory and not unexpected.
Discussion
Asakawa states that these findings provide evidence of flow theory’s applicability to the Japanese population and suggest the universality of flow experience. Additionally the research suggests that flow has a positive effect on the psychological well-being of individuals who experience high levels of flow in their daily lives. Contrary to the previous studies conducted in western societies Asakawa’s research did not obtain clear differences between the autotelic and non-autotelic groups of Japanese college students’ usage of time. Both groups seemed to have similar college student life. Being autotelic or non-autotelic did not significantly influence how the Japanese students spent their time. However, when the two groups were asked to rate the quality of experience autotelic Japanese students reported significantly more positive experiences than the non-autotelic students.
Critique
Multiple tables and statistics embedded in the text, made this article very challenging to read. The study used a convenience sample of volunteers, all of whom received extra credit for their participation in the research. While the sample size was large, it did consist of 3 separate groups of student volunteers over the three year course of the study. The researcher did not address the possible issue of differences between the groups during the three year time frame. Additionally, the question in relationship to Jujitsu-kan, the Japanese a sense of fulfillment was added to the study during the third and final year. This research was exploratory and supports earlier work completed by Csikszentmihalyi and others; however, I am not sure that it would be generalizability to all non-western populations. I personally did not find this research as useful as I was hoping. Asakawa did replicate prior work and there was the finding of similarities in activity choices and between the autotelic and non-autotelic students. Leading me to question the role cultural, parental, and societal expectations play in the behavior patterns of this student population. I feel that flow theory does have the potential to contribute the psychological well-being of individuals and therefore is a topic worthy of further investigation.
Thursday, November 6, 2008
Bassi et al. 2007
Bassi, M., Steca, P., Delle Fave, A., & Caprara, G. V. (2007). Academic self-efficacy beliefs and quality of experience in learning. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36, 301-312.
Problem/Purpose
This article is of interest because the authors investigated learning activities and looked specifically at Bandura’s self-efficacy theory and Czikszentmihalyi’s flow theory. The authors chose these two areas because they are both important theories in active individual intrinsic motivation, but self-efficacy focuses on individuals’ expectations of success or failure and because flow studies have focused on task value and individuals’ reasons for engaging in different achievement tasks. Previous empirical findings have shown that self-efficacy beliefs strongly mediate skill effects and other beliefs as they pertain to performance and accomplishment in academic tasks. Meanwhile flow studies have indicated that the perceived quality of task experiences is related to challenges and personal capabilities. The authors sought to investigate the interplay between daily experiences and self-efficacy beliefs in learning activities.
Methods
Bassi et al conducted an experience sampling method (ESM) study with 130 Italian secondary school students, adolescents aged 15 to 19 years (mean 17.25 years). The data for analysis was collected in 2000 as part of a longitudinal research program in Italy. Participants completed a self-efficacy scale with one domain to measure individuals’ perceived capabilities at mastering different curricular areas. A second domain referred to the perceived capacity for self-regulating learning activities. In addition, there were items to measure value placed on academic pursuits and academic aspirations. For the ESM portion of the study, participants carried digital diaries and forms to complete when the diaries sent random signals throughout the day. These diaries and forms allowed for determinations of daily time budgets and the associated quality of experience at those times.
In the data analysis, the top and bottom quartiles of respondents with respect to self-efficacy were categorized into high and low self-efficacy groups for comparison. (The middle 50% of respondents were not analyzed.) The researchers found an expected and statistically significant gender disparity between the high and low self-efficacy groups, consistent with previous research studies. Within the groups however, there were no other significant gender differences. T tests were used for all comparisons, and Cronbach’s alpha values for the measure of self-efficacy at three different times ranged from alpha = 0.85 to 0.88.
In addition, quality of students’ experiences were analyzed using the experience fluctuation model (EFM), which is an elaborated version of the traditional flow theory model. The traditional flow theory model consists of four states: optimal experience (flow, with high levels of challenge and skill), anxiety (where challenges are greater than skill level), relaxation (where skill level is greater than challenges), and apathy (where skill and challenge levels are both low). EFM includes four additional categories: (1) arousal (between anxiety and flow), (2) worry (between apathy and anxiety), (3) boredom (between apathy and relaxation), and (4) control (between relaxation and flow).
Results
Bassi et al found many expected results using t-tests as their primary statistical method. Bonferroni adjustments were made to account for the large number of t-tests and to reduce the likelihood of Type I errors.
High self-efficacy students placed more importance on academic attainments, aspired to a higher educational level, and reported higher beliefs in the academic efficacy than how self-efficacy students did. The high self-efficacy students also obtained higher teachers’ evaluations.
With respect to time distributions for the two groups, high self-efficacy students spent more time in learning tasks while low self-efficacy students spent more time in maintenance activities (such as grooming, hygiene, eating, and sleeping). The primary factor in these differences was the amount of time spent in homework. High self-efficacy students spent twice as much time on homework.
High self-efficacy students mostly associated all learning experiences with flow, although they also reported high frequencies of relaxation and apathy in school work. In contrast, low self-efficacy students associated class work mostly with anxiety, but homework equally with flow and relaxation.
Both groups associated homework with below average values of wish to be doing the activity (they would rather have been doing something else). T-test comparisons showed significant differences between the groups with respect to concentration, control, and satisfaction. However, both groups showed an increase in most of the values when engaged in flow experiences.
Discussion
The authors state that their findings confirm the strong links between self-efficacy beliefs and performance and attainment. They identified crucial differences in time allotment between the groups, especially with respect to homework. High self-efficacy students associated school work and homework with flow, although school work was also associated with relaxation and apathy. Low self-efficacy students did not perceive many flow opportunities in learning tasks, associating class work with anxiety and noting that tests and exams often exceeded their personal skills. These students also reported a high degree of apathy. However, both groups significantly wished to be engaged in a different activity when doing school work.
The authors posit that low self-efficacy students rarely experiences flow states during learning activities and this may account for their much lower perceptions of concentration, control, involvement, wish to do the activity, and satisfaction during school work.
The authors indicate that their data stress a crucial role for self-efficacy in motivating students and that since self-efficacy beliefs develop early, timely intervention is needed. They also indicate that there is a possibility that flow experiences could be fostered for low self-efficacy students in order to sustain long-term perseverance that could result in feedback to self-efficacy perceptions. They state that over time such feedback could provide evidence for students to alter their self-efficacy beliefs and develop into a virtuous cycle promoting skill development, satisfaction, and goal setting.
Limitations noted in the article are all related to sample size. Due to limited sample size (explained as necessary for cost reasons and also because of the large number of data recorded and analyzed per participant), there are limitations in statistical power and the ability to examine gender differences.
Critique
This article is mostly well written. For the most part, Bassi et al use language that is understandable and jargon is avoided when possible and explained where necessary. The reliance on such a large number of t-tests suggests that other statistical methods, such as linear regression or multivariate ANOVA could have accounted for type I errors more effectively than the Bonferroni technique. A second shortcoming was language that implied causal relationships between self-efficacy and motivation. There may be such a relationship, but the evidence in this research paper do not provide it and the citations are not described in ways that make it clear that such a relationship has been demonstrated.
Theoretical and Practical Implications
A major implication of this article is the potential to use flow experiences to alter a normally stable trait, perception of self-efficacy. If this is a causal trait that affects other desirable factors, such as time spent on homework, perseverance, performance, teacher perception, etc. then being able to improve self-efficacy is indeed a worthwhile goal. Unfortunately the collection of data to demonstrate this potential would require longitudinal data on a large number of subjects and the combined effort of many different teachers to modify their curricula to be sure that students were engaged in flow activities most of the time. To my knowledge, there are few if any curricula designed around flow activities available for such studies.
Problem/Purpose
This article is of interest because the authors investigated learning activities and looked specifically at Bandura’s self-efficacy theory and Czikszentmihalyi’s flow theory. The authors chose these two areas because they are both important theories in active individual intrinsic motivation, but self-efficacy focuses on individuals’ expectations of success or failure and because flow studies have focused on task value and individuals’ reasons for engaging in different achievement tasks. Previous empirical findings have shown that self-efficacy beliefs strongly mediate skill effects and other beliefs as they pertain to performance and accomplishment in academic tasks. Meanwhile flow studies have indicated that the perceived quality of task experiences is related to challenges and personal capabilities. The authors sought to investigate the interplay between daily experiences and self-efficacy beliefs in learning activities.
Methods
Bassi et al conducted an experience sampling method (ESM) study with 130 Italian secondary school students, adolescents aged 15 to 19 years (mean 17.25 years). The data for analysis was collected in 2000 as part of a longitudinal research program in Italy. Participants completed a self-efficacy scale with one domain to measure individuals’ perceived capabilities at mastering different curricular areas. A second domain referred to the perceived capacity for self-regulating learning activities. In addition, there were items to measure value placed on academic pursuits and academic aspirations. For the ESM portion of the study, participants carried digital diaries and forms to complete when the diaries sent random signals throughout the day. These diaries and forms allowed for determinations of daily time budgets and the associated quality of experience at those times.
In the data analysis, the top and bottom quartiles of respondents with respect to self-efficacy were categorized into high and low self-efficacy groups for comparison. (The middle 50% of respondents were not analyzed.) The researchers found an expected and statistically significant gender disparity between the high and low self-efficacy groups, consistent with previous research studies. Within the groups however, there were no other significant gender differences. T tests were used for all comparisons, and Cronbach’s alpha values for the measure of self-efficacy at three different times ranged from alpha = 0.85 to 0.88.
In addition, quality of students’ experiences were analyzed using the experience fluctuation model (EFM), which is an elaborated version of the traditional flow theory model. The traditional flow theory model consists of four states: optimal experience (flow, with high levels of challenge and skill), anxiety (where challenges are greater than skill level), relaxation (where skill level is greater than challenges), and apathy (where skill and challenge levels are both low). EFM includes four additional categories: (1) arousal (between anxiety and flow), (2) worry (between apathy and anxiety), (3) boredom (between apathy and relaxation), and (4) control (between relaxation and flow).
Results
Bassi et al found many expected results using t-tests as their primary statistical method. Bonferroni adjustments were made to account for the large number of t-tests and to reduce the likelihood of Type I errors.
High self-efficacy students placed more importance on academic attainments, aspired to a higher educational level, and reported higher beliefs in the academic efficacy than how self-efficacy students did. The high self-efficacy students also obtained higher teachers’ evaluations.
With respect to time distributions for the two groups, high self-efficacy students spent more time in learning tasks while low self-efficacy students spent more time in maintenance activities (such as grooming, hygiene, eating, and sleeping). The primary factor in these differences was the amount of time spent in homework. High self-efficacy students spent twice as much time on homework.
High self-efficacy students mostly associated all learning experiences with flow, although they also reported high frequencies of relaxation and apathy in school work. In contrast, low self-efficacy students associated class work mostly with anxiety, but homework equally with flow and relaxation.
Both groups associated homework with below average values of wish to be doing the activity (they would rather have been doing something else). T-test comparisons showed significant differences between the groups with respect to concentration, control, and satisfaction. However, both groups showed an increase in most of the values when engaged in flow experiences.
Discussion
The authors state that their findings confirm the strong links between self-efficacy beliefs and performance and attainment. They identified crucial differences in time allotment between the groups, especially with respect to homework. High self-efficacy students associated school work and homework with flow, although school work was also associated with relaxation and apathy. Low self-efficacy students did not perceive many flow opportunities in learning tasks, associating class work with anxiety and noting that tests and exams often exceeded their personal skills. These students also reported a high degree of apathy. However, both groups significantly wished to be engaged in a different activity when doing school work.
The authors posit that low self-efficacy students rarely experiences flow states during learning activities and this may account for their much lower perceptions of concentration, control, involvement, wish to do the activity, and satisfaction during school work.
The authors indicate that their data stress a crucial role for self-efficacy in motivating students and that since self-efficacy beliefs develop early, timely intervention is needed. They also indicate that there is a possibility that flow experiences could be fostered for low self-efficacy students in order to sustain long-term perseverance that could result in feedback to self-efficacy perceptions. They state that over time such feedback could provide evidence for students to alter their self-efficacy beliefs and develop into a virtuous cycle promoting skill development, satisfaction, and goal setting.
Limitations noted in the article are all related to sample size. Due to limited sample size (explained as necessary for cost reasons and also because of the large number of data recorded and analyzed per participant), there are limitations in statistical power and the ability to examine gender differences.
Critique
This article is mostly well written. For the most part, Bassi et al use language that is understandable and jargon is avoided when possible and explained where necessary. The reliance on such a large number of t-tests suggests that other statistical methods, such as linear regression or multivariate ANOVA could have accounted for type I errors more effectively than the Bonferroni technique. A second shortcoming was language that implied causal relationships between self-efficacy and motivation. There may be such a relationship, but the evidence in this research paper do not provide it and the citations are not described in ways that make it clear that such a relationship has been demonstrated.
Theoretical and Practical Implications
A major implication of this article is the potential to use flow experiences to alter a normally stable trait, perception of self-efficacy. If this is a causal trait that affects other desirable factors, such as time spent on homework, perseverance, performance, teacher perception, etc. then being able to improve self-efficacy is indeed a worthwhile goal. Unfortunately the collection of data to demonstrate this potential would require longitudinal data on a large number of subjects and the combined effort of many different teachers to modify their curricula to be sure that students were engaged in flow activities most of the time. To my knowledge, there are few if any curricula designed around flow activities available for such studies.
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)